Abstract

 

English has a double lexicon, with parallel terms for thousands of concepts, one Germanic and the other Romance.  We look at this vocabulary in terms of form and meaning.  and then study problems of the Portuguese/English translator who must understand the differences and know how to map them onto the primarily Romance vocabulary of Portuguese.  This process involves subtle differences of meaning or register, and often produces false cognates.  Specific difficulties are studied and suggestions given.

 

 

The Double Lexicon of English and the Portuguese/English Translator

 

John B. Jensen

Florida International University

 

0.  Introduction

 

Any translator working with English is well aware of the richness of English vocabulary brought about the existence of thousands of lexical duplicates--synonym pairs consisting of an English-or Anglo-origin member and another of Latin origin (usually through French).  The translator has to be extraordinarily wary to choose the appropriate alternative when going into English, and in understanding the subtleties implicit in the author's choice when going from English.  The job of the translator working from or into Portuguese (or another Romance language, for that matter), is  especially sensitive because most of the Latin-origin vocabulary in English has cognate equivalents in Portuguese, usually covering roughly the semantic range of both members of the synonym pairs.

 

In this article, we look at the history and nature of the duplicate vocabulary in English and consider some of the challenges to the Portuguese translator implicit in the duplication.

 

1.  Origins of the Double Lexicon of English

 

The language of England might have been a Romance tongue.  The Romans invaded Celtic England in 43 B.C., founding London (Londonium), and the Latin language was used for official purposes in the area occupied by the Romans, where they stayed until around 410 AD (Crystal, 8).  The Romans failed to pass their language on to the masses of the people while in England, however, leaving behind only a handful of Latin words (Pyles & Algeo, 288-89).  The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes arrived between 449 and 473, originally to help the Britons against the Scots, and then stayed on as conquerors, and their language formed the basis of Modern English. Thus, the English language spoken today is not a Romance language at all, not a descendant of Latin, but is closely related to Low-Germanic languages, Dutch, Flemish, and Frisian, and more distantly related to the High-Germanic languages such as German, Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian.  Formal Latin continued to be used in the Church and education, as elsewhere in Europe.

 

Of course, the Roman world was not through with its incursions into England.   The nearby Normans, just across the Channel, invaded in 1066 AD, establishing their Prince Alfred as king, and Norman French as the language of government and high society.  Thousands of courtiers and noblemen crossed the channel, often confiscating the lands and homes of the English nobility.  Eventually, the Normans made themselves reasonably at home, blending and combining with the English, sometimes even against France. The first two hundred years after the Normal invasion was a period of bilingualism and diglossia B bilingualism in that many people spoke both languages, and diglossia in terms of the roles assigned in society to French as the AHigh@ language and English as the ALow@ language.^[1]

 

Until the gradual reemergence of English as the national language, starting some 150 years later, then, French was the prestige language form, used along side Latin in education and the Church, and used exclusively in government and Ahigh@ society, becoming the standard language of urban life.  English, however, continued to be used by the common folk--those with little or no education--and in the countryside, almost exclusively. This relegation of English to rural areas and to the uneducated had two very significant effects on the development of the language: 

 

A.  First of all, formal varieties of English, those previously used in writing, in government, and to some extent in education, disappeared, replaced by French.  With these "inflected" dialects went a great deal of the complex morphology of the language, inherited from its Germanic predecessors, such as case endings and verb conjugations marking person and number.  These grammatical markers had largely been eliminated already in the spoken language of the common folk, and it was precisely this popular language that survived the French onslaught.  Thus, English grammar is relatively simple when measured in terms of morphological paradigms and grammatical categories.

 

B.  The other effect was a partial relexification of English, a process normally associated with pidgins and creoles, whereby successive European traders bring about changes in the European element of the language.  In the case of English, the elegant AFrenchified@ English of the bilingual nobility contributed to the introduction of thousands of Romance lexical items into English, sometimes completely replacing the traditional Anglo-Saxon word, but in other cases replacing it only in some uses, leaving the English word in place for other contexts.  The result in Modern English is an extensive set of synonyms and near-synonyms, a sort of alternate vocabulary, one member of which is based on Germanic roots, and the other coming through French, based on Latin or even Greek roots. 

 

2.  The Nature of the Duplicate Vocabulary in Form.

 

Let=s look at a few examples of this duplicate vocabulary before going further, given with their Portuguese formal equivalents (*not necessarily translation equivalents, that is, Afalse cognates@):

 

Germanic                      Latinate                  Portuguese

Nouns:

strength                         force                         força

threat                            menace                     ameaça

freedom                        liberty                        liberdade

folk                               people                       povo

trade, business              commerce                 comércio

dealings                        negotiations               negociações

trust                             confidence                 confiança

mistake                         error                         erro

runner                           courier                      corredor*

meaning                        significance               significância

lawmaker                      legislator                  legislador 

 

Verbs:

give                         donate                          dar, doar 

need                         require                         requerir*

see                           view                             ver

feel                           sense                            sentir

 

Adjectives:

great                         grand                            grande

right                          just                               justo

full                            replete                          repleto

free                          gratuitous                     gratuito

wonderful                 fabulous                       fabuloso 

yearly                       annual                          anual

deep                         profound                     profundo  

 

Adverbs:                                                                                                        

 often                        frequently                   frequentemente

 seldom                     rarely                          raramente 

 quickly, fast             rapidly                       rapidamente

 

 

In terms of form,  the Germanic words are generally shorter (often mono-syllabic) and may have letter combinations rare in Latin-derived words, reflecting consonantal  phonemes that did not exist in French-Latin (e.g., th, gh) or vestiges of the long/short vowel system of Germanic origin (e.g., ee, ea).  The famous Afour-letter@ words of English (exemplified by the Germanic equivalents of defecate and copulate) are members of this set and are ancient survivals from pre-Norman times.  On the other hand, words presenting  -ous , -ion, -a/i/ence, suffixes, or pre- and dis- prefixes are surely Latinate, or hybrid derivations.

 

An important part of the double vocabulary of English, contrasting with their Latinate equivalents, are the well-known English Atwo-word verbs@ that make life so difficult for foreign students of English.  English, like German and its other sister languages, has a tendency to extend the use of simple verbs by adding particles that can completely change the meaning of the base verb.  Normally, these two-word combinations have equivalent simple Latin-based words in English.  For example:

 

     A-S English                              L English                                  Portuguese

     get in                                        enter                                         entrar

     get out                                      depart                                      partir

     put up                                       propose, offer                           propor

     put up with                               tolerate                                     tolerar

     put in                                        insert                                        inserir

     put out                                     produce, remove           produzir, remover

     stand in                                     replace, substitute                   substituir

     stand out                                   be prominent                        (destacar-se)

        

            The combination make up is a particularly interesting example, carrying a number of rather different possible meanings:

 

      form, integrate (e.g.,  --a committee)                formar, integrar

      invent, compose (e.g., --a song)                       inventar, compor

     compensate (e.g. --for the loss)                       compensar

     come to peace (e.g. kiss andB)                         fazer as pazes

     prepare (e.g., --the bed)                                   preparar

 

And then there=s makeup (mákeùp) meaning either >cosmetics= or >compensatory work= (e.g. a test or paper)              

 

Of course, Latin also had a process of word composition not unlike the verb+particle structure of Germanic.  In Latin, a number of prefixes and suffixes (sometimes based on prepositions) were used to create words with very different meanings.  This has produced a situation similar to that above, but opposite, in which closely related words from the same base family in Latin are equivalent to simple, unrelated words in English. Often the equivalents of these  derived or complex Latin terms are two-word verbs in English.  It is also sometimes the case that English has adopted some derivative Latin terms without bringing in the base.  Thus, we have pensive and odious for thoughtful and hateful, respectively, but no ready Latinate equivalent to think and hate, that is, no *to pense or *to odiate.   In some cases, whole families of derivatives have come in without their base form, such as the -tain family:

 

     hold within                                contain                                     conter

     hold back                                 retain                                        reter

     keep up                                    maintain                                    manter

     get                                            obtain                                       obter

     have, hold                                 *tain (non-existent)                  ter

 

The -duce or -duct group (reduce, produce, conduct, etc.) is similarly lacking the base form.  (Of course, we have duce >number two' and duct >pipe= but not the verb *duce, *duct >lead=).On the other hand, we have the -pose family, wherein the base form did enter English, but with very restricted meaning:

 

     make up                                   compose                                   compor

     dethrone                                   depose                                     depor

     get rid of                                   dispose (of)                              dispor*

     rest                                           repose                                      repor

     believe                                      suppose                                    supor

     be against                                 oppose                                     opor

     sit, ask                                      pose                                         posar

     put                                           B                                               pôr

 

Pose is used almost exclusively in just two situations:  pose for a picture (that is, be a subject of a photograph or painting), or pose a question (ask one).   That is, English pose did not come in with the rest of the -pose family, but seems to be a recent borrowing from French for those specific meanings.  Portuguese posar is also from French, and constitutes a doublet with pôr (see footnote 2, below)

 

3.  The Nature of the Duplicate Vocabulary in Terms of Meaning.

 

In regard to meaning, synonyms are not exact equivalents:  they retain or acquire differentiated lexical spheres, connotations, tone, or style.  And this is where the work of the translator becomes very tricky.  These pairs of synonyms are not interchangeable in English, yet they often correspond to a single translationBthe cognate of the French/Latin formBin Portuguese.

 

In general, the following distinctions hold between the two sets of terms in English:

 

 

     Germanic                                              Latinate

 

     more concrete                                      less concrete

     less figurative                                        more figurative

     less formal                                            more formal

     less specialized                                     more specialized

 

The examples below illustrate these differences, with the Portuguese word that can translate both English words:

 

     opening                                                                       

     aperture  camera lens, scientific context                     abertura

 

     murder                                                            

     assassination  of a public figure                                   assassinato

 

     believable                                                                    

     credible  said of a witness                                            crível

 

     young                                                  

     juvenile   biological or legal context                            jovem

 

     wrong                                                  

     incorrect   conclusions, test answers                            incorreto

 

We do not mean to imply, of course, that Portuguese is a language poor in synonyms.  Indeed, crível alternates with acreditável, and jovem with juvenil and even novo, but these are all of Latin origin.^[1] 

 

In many cases, perhaps most, differences are subtle and may have more to do with customary collocation, or combinations that naturally go togetherBnaturally to the native speaker that is, than to any logical distinction.  Consider the following uses of lead and conduct, for example:

 

lead                              conduct                                    either lead/conduct

 

a band                          an experiment                           an orchestra                 

a team                          a plan                                       an excursion

a group                                                                        an effort

a march                                                                        a session

a campaign

                                                           

                               

In these examples where only conduct is usable, an alternative might be carry out.

 

4.  Translation problems. 

 

Problems in translation between English and Portuguese resulting from this double lexicon are evident in both directions. 

 

4.1  English to Portuguese.  The translation problems posed by the double vocabulary of English for rendering a text into Portuguese are a matter of recognizing, and accurately expressing, subtle differences implied by an author=s choice of near synonyms, especially where a single Portuguese word generally translates both terms.  It may often be possible simply to ignore the difference,

recognizing that the Portuguese term is broader:

 

            There is an annual celebration. 

           There is a yearly celebration.                  Há uma comemoração anual.

 

As the E>P  translator seeks translations for some basic English words, it is often enough to think of a higher-register Latin-based synonym in English and use its cognate, as in yearly/annual, above.  In the same way, someone trying to say call a meeting  in English, and rightfully rejecting chamar uma reunião in Portuguese, may come up with English convoke, as in convocation, and from there to convocar uma reunião.  Time and again words in English that at first blush do not have Romance cognate equivalents can first be Atransformed@ into a more elegant form of English and then translated to the Romance language by the use of cognates.  This technique may seem absurd from the point of view of a knowledgeable translator sitting at a computer with a stack of dictionaries nearby, but for a simultaneous interpreter in a booth, needing a word within a second or two, these mental games can be helpful.

 

A serious problems appears, however, when the English writer or speaker uses two English words together which, while distinct in English, have a single standard translation.  This may happen, of course, in any translation situation, but it is more frequent in E>P situations because of the extensive dual lexicon of English.  One of the most notorious cases is that of  involving safety and security, two words that may often be paired.  If they are not contrasted, a single translation may well serve:

 

There are problems of safety and security.

Existem  problemas de segurança.

 

Other cases, where contrast is involved, may be much more difficult. Here the translator may have to resort of circumlocution, or dig deep into his lexicon, to find suitable equivalents that make the necessary contrast:

 

This is more a matter of safety than security.

 Isto é mais uma questão de segurança física do que qualquer outro aspecto de segurança.

 

In a real-life situation, where the translator is very sure of the precise context and understands just what the author means by safety and security, it could be better to use more exact wording:

 

Isto é mais uma questão de segurança física dos trabalhadores do que de proteção das instalações.

 

4.2  Portuguese to English.  The other direction, in which a Portuguese text is being translated into English, is more subtle.  A ready cognate is often available to the translator when faced with a new translation situation, but that is often not the best choice.  Rather, the translator must choose between alternatives that seem to be exact or very close synonyms.  The native speaker must rely heavily on his or her language intuition, or feeling for what is correct and sounds most natural, and then exercise great care.  However, the non-native, even one sufficiently knowledgeable of English to translate or interpret into the language professionally, must exercise extreme caution and consult dictionaries when in doubt.

 

While a tendency of novice translators (or, more likely, language learners) is to prefer the Latinate form always, producing such mistakes as:

 

 *His baby brother was assassinated.

*We require a cup of sugar.

 

The experienced translator may have a tendency to go the other way, and positively avoid Latinate forms for fear of misuse.  Thus, words like comportment or credible may never make it into their prose, always replaced by behavior and believable.  The word realize may never be used in its Latin sense of >make real,= although that meaning is common enough in formal English prose. The word semestre may be translated correctly by six-month period or half-year in financial reports, but for fear of the Latinate, the translator may fail to use semester in a school transcript where that is precisely the word required.   These decisions not to use Latinate forms can lead to a poverty of vocabulary and an inelegance of style, so that the non-native translator needs to gain confidence in the use of these sometimes ornate-sounding forms.  This requires wide reading and careful attention to perhaps surprising uses of Latin forms in English produced by natives, mostly in formal writing.

 

Summarizing, then, there are basically three kinds of errors to be made (and avoided) by the translator:

 

1.  Making suitable contrasts when working into Portuguese. The translator may stumble over vocabulary that is quite ordinary in Portuguese but with cognate equivalents that are rare or formal in English, and have problems finding suitable alternatives to distinguish between near synonyms in English that have a common Portuguese translation.(e.g. problemas de segurança)

 

2.  Over-use of Latinate equivalents in working into English:  Failure to distinguish the specific contexts or styles in which the Latinate forms are acceptable, or their restricted semantic range, leading to funny-sounding or downright meaningless English. (e.g. His brother was assassinated)

 

3.  Under-use of Latinate equivalents in working into English:  Failure to recognize the legitimacy of Latinate forms in some styles of English, leading to a poverty of vocabulary or a failure to produce the appropriate formal style. (e.g., First half-year grades)

 

5.  Conclusion

 

While Portuguese, like other major world languages, has a huge and subtle lexicon, consisting of words from many sources, and multiple entries (doublets) from its major supplier, Latin, English presents a situation in which there exists a second whole set of lexical items for thousands and thousands of concepts, due to its two-hundred year coexistence with French, a prestige language of conquerors and nobility.  The successful translator or interpreter must learn to navigate through this universe to pick out just the right word to use in English, or just the right Portuguese equivalent to preserve the subtlety of the original, avoiding the pitfalls of the easy cognate.  Unfortunately, meeting these challenges is not easy, requiring 1)  wide reading;  2)  dictionary study;  3)  sensitivity to choice of synonyms by writers and speakers;  4)  note-taking and glossary-building.

 

 

References

 

Crystal, David.  1995.  The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.  Cambridge, English, New York:  Cambridge University Press.

 

Ferguson, Charles A.  1959  ADiglossia.@ Word 15:325-40. 

 

Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo.  1993. The Origins and Development of the English Language.  4^th ed.  Fort Worth, Philadelphia, etc.: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.

 

Resnick, Melvyn C.  1981.  Introducción a la historia de la lengua española.  Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.